Nuclear Disaster in Japan

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Simulation of radionuclides spreading over the world on March 23 2 PM CET

Nuclear Disaster in Japan

As a result of a tsunami and several earthquakes the Fukushima 1 (Daiichi)[1] atomic power plant in Japan experienced a nuclear catastrophe of level INES 6[2] including several explosions, failing cooling systems, meltdown of fuel elements and releases of high amounts of radioactivity since March 11, 2011. Unit 1 exploded on March 12, 2011 at 7.30 AM GMT[3], unit 3 exploded two days later on March 14 at 2.01 AM GMT[4][5][6] and eventually also unit 2 blasted in the following night (14/3/11 9.10 PM GMT) damaging the reactor core and as officially confirmed releasing serious amounts of radiation[7][8]. There is a risk of a nuclear meltdown in unit 2 as the fuel rods have been damaged, the operator says[8]. Also a fire occured on March 15 at 0.40 AM GMT at unit 4[8] - a reactor unit that had not even been in operation when the Tsunami hit the Japanese coast last Friday.

An atomic power emergency has been declared by the Japanese government on Saturday March 12 while up to 300,000 residents (other sources talk about "over 200,000"[9]) had been evacuated in a zone of 20 kilometers around Fukushima I Daiichi and Fukushima II Daini[1][7]. Several emergency power generators failed supplying the emergency cooling systems with electricity[2]. The authorities confirmed the release of radioactive elements such as caesium and iodine[10]. Independent experts say that a nuclear meltdown must have happened. According to the German news "Tagesschau" Japanese officials also confirmed a nuclear meltdown in Fukushima[11]. This had been confirmed by a statement of Chief Secretary Yukio Edano on Sunday saying that at least one nuclear meltdown occured [2]. Later he stated also a nuclear meltdown in reactor 3 of Fukushima 1 to be "possible"[2].

First, an area of 3 kilometers had been evacuated on Friday, March 11. Later it was enlarged to a 10 km evacuation zone and then to a 20 km evacuation zone while residents of the 20-30 km zone were advized not to leave their houses. On the very first day a BBC reporter spoke about a prohibition zone of 60 kilometers.[12] On March 24, 23 members of Japan’s Parliament have signed a statement urging a larger evacuation zone [13]. March 25, Japan's government urged the residents of the 20-30 km zone to leave the area, too[14]. More than 10,000 people are still in the area, NHK reported[15]

"The cores of the three reactors are believed to have partially melted", the Japanese news agency Kyodo reported on Tuesday Morning[8][16].

Damages of the containment

On Saturday March 12 the Japanese authorities claimed the reactor pressure vessel of unit 1 of Fukushima 1 wouldn't have been damaged. But this is in conflict with the officially confirmed releases of Caesium. Friday evening the authorities already had claimed there wouldn't have been any danger of radioactivity releases. First independent meassurements of radiation showed a serious of radioactivity even in a certain distance to the crashed reactor units[17].

Japan's defense ministry said that US-American officials had expressed grave concern that the saltwater could cause equipment to seize up and corrode, making resolution of the situation even more difficult[14].

A suspected breach in the core at one reactor at a stricken Fukushima nuclear plant could mean more serious radioactive contamination, Japanese officials revealed Friday - a situation the prime minister called "very grave and serious", Assiocated Press reported on March 25[18].

Collapsed MOX reactor increasening threats at Fukushima I

Around 9 PM GMT Saturday March 12 evening Reuters informed about Fukushima 1 unit 3 that "the emergency cooling system is no longer functioning (...) as an official of the Japan Nuclear and Industrial Safety Agency told a news conference"[19]. "This is of particular concern since, unlike all of the other reactors in trouble, Unit 3 has been using plutonium-based MOX (mixed oxide) fuel since September 10, 2010. Consequences of an accident at a MOX-powered reactor would be even more severe than at a more typical uranium-powered reactor", says the Nuclear Information and Resource Service[13] On March 13 the chief Cabinet secretary of Japan's government informed that an explosion at unit 3 of Fukushima 1 is possible to occur, but that they wouldn't expect a meltdown to happen[20][21] (however they want to be sure about that after the last days' experiences...). Several attempts to cool the reactor core failed until the late evening of Sunday[2], it eventually exploded Monday morning at 2.01 AM GMT[22][23]. NIRS believes there are now multiple meltdowns in progress along with significant releases from irradiated fuel pools[13].


Status of the affected facilities

  • Fukushima 1 unit 1: Steam was seen coming from Units 1 through 4 today, in some cases large amounts - the steam is carrying radiation into the air (24/3/11)[13]
    • irregular but extremely high heat levels appear according to CNN infrared pictures - this could be of major concern (21/3/11)[13]
    • The water level is such low that measurement instruments couldn't be recorded clearly anymore as the Japanese nuclear authority NISA found out (18/3/11)[24]
    • The outer building is damaged and it is presumed that there was a partial meltdown. At least small amounts of radioactivity have been vented (16/3/11)[25]
  • Fukushima 1 unit 2: analysis of infrared pictures published by CNN indicates there may be no water at all (21/3/11)[13]
    • 1.4 m of the fuel rods are exposed (17/3/11 11 PM GMT)[24]
    • primary containment is believed to be significantly breached (16/3/11 2 PM GMT)[13]
    • there has been an explosion; there is speculation that this explosion has damaged the primary containment(14/3/11)[13]
    • fears of a partial meltdown as the fuel elements were several times totally exposed and thus cooling failed (14/3/11)[7]
    • no cooling capability anymore (12/3/11)[13]
  • Fukushima 1 unit 3: NISA suspects the core to be damaged and radioactive water to leak through the containment vessel as water in the turbine room was "about 10,000 times the level of radiation found in the coolant inside a reactor" (25/3/11)[14]
    • substantial amounts of smoke, workers were temporarily evacuated (21/3/11)[13]
    • irregular but extremely high heat levels appear according to CNN infrared pictures - this could be of major concern (21/3/11)[13]
    • the condition of the fuel pools appears to remain more serious (19/3/11 2.30 PM GMT)[13]
    • 2.3 m of the fuel rods are exposed (17/3/11 11 PM GMT)[24]
    • the fuel pool might also be losing water and could soon be in the same condition as at unit 4 (16/3/2011)[26]
  • Fukushima 1 unit 4: smoke or steam visible (21/3/11)[13]
    • the condition of the fuel pools appears to remain more serious (19/3/11 2.30 PM GMT)[13]
    • US NRC Chairman Greg Jazcko told a Congressional committee this afternoon that the Unit 4 fuel pool has no water and is releasing massive amounts of radiation (16/3/11 8.30 PM GMT)[13]; commission representatives in Tokyo and TEPCO confirmed that the pool at No. 4 was empty (18/3/11)[26][24]; NRC people were on the site saying that the fuel pool is without water and that the released radiation is lethal in a short period of time (17/3/11 9 PM GMT)[13]
    • flames appeared; it is impossible to go near the fire since the radiation is so high (15/3/11 8.45 PM GMT)[13]
    • There was briefly a fire in the irradiated fuel pool - it is said to be extinguished for now (15/3/11 12.15 PM GMT)[13]
  • Fukushima 1 unit 5: TEPCO has cut holes in the roofs of the containment building in an effort to remove building pressure and prevent explosions such as those that severely damaged Units 1, 3 and 4. This means some radiation is certainly being released through these holes (19/3/11 2.30 PM GMT)[13]
    • offcials said they had experienced a slight rise in temperature, while the operator says the emergency power supplies have been restored (18/3/11)[26][24]
  • Fukushima 1 unit 6: TEPCO has cut holes in the roofs of the containment building in an effort to remove building pressure and prevent explosions such as those that severely damaged Units 1, 3 and 4. This means some radiation is certainly being released through these holes (19/3/11 2.30 PM GMT)[13]
    • offcials said they had experienced a slight rise in temperature, while the operator says the emergency power supplies have been restored (18/3/11)[26][24]


http://www.bfs.de/de/ion/aktivitaetskonzentrationen_jod.jpg
Measured concentrations of Iodine-131 up to March 21





































Connected additional accidents in other atomic facilities

Several other nuclear Japanese facilities are faced to serious safety issues as a result of the tsunami and earthquakes: the reprocessing unit Rokkasho (difficulties with cooling systems), the NPP Fukushima 2 Daini (fire, failing cooling systems - atomic power emergency declared), the NPP Tokai (two of three emergency power generators failed) and the NPP Onagawa (fire, leakage - atomic power emergency declared)[10][2].

Health impacts of the catastrophe

One worker died as a result of the explosion of Fukushima 1 unit 1, three others were injured and sent to hospital. A contractor had been found unconscious and two workers of a "cooperative firm" had been injured. At unit 3 one worker received a high radiation dose, and the whereabout of two workers remained unknown.[27] "Fukushima Prefecture revealed that there are an additional 19 individuals who have received radiation doses. This brings the total to 22 people. According the METI’s NISA, there is a possibility that 160 individuals living in the vicinity of the nuclear power plants have received radiation doses", Mainichi reported on Sunday March 13[28]. While Japanese authorities as well as an IAEA spokesman and recently also some BBC correspondents were downplaying the risks of the radiation released, the legal exposure limit for the workers was raised on Wednesday from 100 to 250 millisieverts in Japan[7]. Meanwhile the operator of the crashed NPPs TEPCO and the Japanese authorities are considering a Chernobyl-like sarcophagus solution as a last means for the damaged reactors[24].

Two workers had to be sent to hospital on March 24 after receiving a dose of 170 to 180 millisieverts of radiation after stepping into contaminated water at unit 3; another one was affected, but not sent to hospital[14][29].

By Thursday March 17, the available data about radiation from Fukushima I show releases of already "about a tenth of what was released from the Chernobyl-4 reactor in Ukraine in 1986", experts of the French IRSN (Institute of Radiological Protection and Nuclear Safety) informed.[30] The Austrian Central Institute for Meteorology and Geodynamics (ZAMG), which is advising the International Atomic Energy Agency, reported on March 23 that releases of radioactive Cesium (hazardous life: 300-600 years) from Fukushima now are 20-60% those of Chernobyl; releases of Iodine-131 are at 20% Chernobyl releases[13]. According to Agence France-Presse France’s Nuclear Safety Authority says that local contamination in the area is a problem that will remain for "decades and decades"[13].

Dr. Chris Busby at the European Committee on Radiation Risk (ECRR) told the public that the ECRR radiation risk model predicts 120,000 cancers worldwide based on the current known releases from Fukushima[13]. Ground radiation levels at the Fukushima site are currently over 2,000 Microsievert per hour, and there are likely hot spots of far higher levels, NIRS assumes[13].

On Saturday March 19 the Japanese government confirmed high radiation in spinach and milk near the nuclear power plant[31]. The spinach was growing some 60 kilometers from the site[13]. Vegetables from the Fukushima region and the also radioactively affected Ibaraki area south of Fukushima are still going to be sold in Tokyo, the New York Times reported[31]. Radioactive Iodine-131 was found in Tokyo’s water supply at twice the allowable level for infants, the government told on March 22 advising not to let infants drink tap water or use it in formula[13][32]. The government was distributing bottled water to 80,000 households with infants younger than 12 months[32]. Meanwhile, the U.S. Food and Drug Administration has banned import of milk and vegetables from Japan to the United States[13].

On March 24 Japanese officials said that infants - even outside the evacuation zone - could have received a dose of 10 rems to their thyroids from Iodine-131 over the past two weeks. This would apply to infants who had stayed outdoors every day. The radiation levels remained far above normal. The Nuclear Information and Resource Service (NIRS) pointed out that all of the levels of the surrounding communities are far above background and above levels allowable for long-term human habitation. NIRS stressed the fact that all of the monitoring locations are outside the current evacuation zone, in most cases many miles outside.[13] One of the radiation monitoring websites from Japan is commenting the status "under suryey" of the collapsed reactors to be a synonym for being "under censorship". Readings of March 21 published by the Japanese Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology (MEXT) showed up to 111 Mikrosieverts per hour30 kilometers from the site - thus, the maximum allowable dose to public would be reached in about 9 hours[13].

Meanwhile in connection to the Fukushima disaster, since March 16, the German authorities stopped the publishment of German data about wind and radioactivity by the regular measurement stations. This stated Prof. Sebastian Pflugbeil, independent expert to the Gesellschaft für Strahlenschutz, to the news broadcasting N24[33]. The Gesellschaft für Strahlenschutz warned on March 23 about under-estimating the impacts and health risks of the radiation measured and published in Japan and spoke about levels comparable with the levels of radiation after the Chernobyl disaster 1986[34].

Despite to former publications of the German Ministry of Environment the so-called "iodine blocker" Kalium-Iodine tablets are not available for customers in Germany right now[35]. An inquiry to a public pharmacy resulted in the information that this product meant to be used in an emergency situation hasn't been available in Germany since a long time[36]. An internet search confirmed the impossibility of getting the iodine blocker in Germany as all search results say that the product "is not available at the moment". It seems to be difficult to order it at online pharmacies internationally, too[37]. An exception seems to be Goldpharma who is still offering the product. This means that independent precaution against radioactive iodine incorporation is impossible in Germany, and people would be totally depending on the authorities' decisions if and when they would assess an accident to be serious and to start to distribute the supplied iodine tablets. The only possibility for people to get the iodine blocker right now is to let a local pharmacy order it from the Austrian producer directly[38].

Causes of the disaster

What happened in detail in Fukushima is yet unclear as the authorities and the operator publish hardly any concrete information, and probably by now no one knows exactly how the reactors look inside to examine the happenings before the explosions occured. However, there are hypotheses about the causes of the accident. The major interpretation reads as following: When the 9.0-magnitudes earthquake occured on March 11 5.46 AM GMT[9], the units 1-3 of Fukushima I Daiichi were shut-down automatically[9] while the reactors 4-6 were already offline due to regular maintenance. This earthquake was the most powerful known one ever to have hit Japan, and one of the five most powerful earthquakes in the world overall since modern record-keeping began in 1900[9]. More than 600 aftershocks of magnitude 4.5 or greater occurred since the initial quake[9]. The earthquakes also disconnected the NPPs from the grid making emergency generating necessary to supply the colling systems[39]. The earthquakes also caused the huge tsunami reaching up to 10 meters[9]. The tsunami surmounted the protection seawalls that were thought to stop normal tsunamis and hit the emergency power generators of the units[9]. Although the Tsunami is regarded to have been high, it has not been the highest Tsunami hitting Japan in history - 22 Tsunamis have been recorded since 684 AD, including 11 events with waves heights in the range of 13-55 m[9]. The emergency power generators still worked for a certain time before they failed. When the cooling systems stopped working hydrogen was generated under the conditions of hot steam and high pressure. Due to the nitrogen concentration in the reactor core it could not ignite inside the containment. To reduce the pressure and to prevent an explosion the operator opened the containment to release some steam (and simultaneous to release radiation to the environment). Shortly afterwards unit 1 exploded due to the hydrogen catching fire in the nitrogen poor reactor building. This happened in other units later, too.

Even after shutting down a reactor a high amount of so-called decay-heat is produced by the radioactive inventory[40]. The decay products of the nuclear fission keep on decaying producing heat: Immediately after the shut down depending on the time of usage of the fuel in the reactor the decay heat is 5-10 % of the original thermal output of the reactor. For instance, a current reactor has an electric output of 1,300 MW and some 4,000 MW thermal output - thus, the decay heat at the moment after the shut down is still 200-400 MW. This amount first decreases fast and later slower - after 10 seconds it is 149 MW, after 1 minute it is 102 MW, after 1 hour it is 40 MW, after 1 day it is 18 MW. After 3 months it is still 3 MW. This heat needs to be lead away to prevent a meltdown of the fuel. As the heat and pressure would not be high enough for the operation of the steam turbine, the fuel needs to artificially be cooled. Because of the small volume in the reactor core and the produced heat a meltdown would cover the entire fuel inventory. Locally reduced meltdowns only appear in connection to material defects, but not as a result of a loss of coolant. Even months after shutting down the reactor the produced decay heat is high enough to cause a meltdown if the cooling systems don't work.[41]

On March 20, Nuclear Power Daily uncovered TEPCO to have lied about their safety procedures: "We can't say that the lapses listed in the (February 28) report did not have an influence on the chain of events leading to this crisis", a nuclear safety agency official said. TEPCO had admitted a couple of days before the catastrophe that they had faked reparing records. For several years wrong statements about inspections and results had been made by TEPCO including parts of cooling systems like water pump motors and diesel generators.[42]

Another message about the design based failure of the emergency cooling systems in Fukushima arose by film maker Adam Curtis producing the documentary "A Is For Atom". He pointed out that his interviews from the 1960's already showed a design failure of the cooling systems of General Electrics Boiling Water Reactors of the Fukushima type. A couple of years later in 1971 the Atomic Energy Commision tested them in reality and realized that while the systems basically worked properly the level of water in the core did not rise. "We discovered that our theoretical calculations didn't have a strong correlation with reality. But we just couldn't admit to the public that all these safety systems we told you about might not do any good", one of the AEC scientists says in the film. In the same year the first of the Fukushima reactors came online.[43] Units 1, 2 and 6 of Fukushima I Daiichi had been supplied by General Electrics[44].

Reactions in other countries

IPPNW, the International Physicians for the Prevention of Nuclear War, on March 22 demanded the World Health Organization (WHO) to inform the Japanese public about the true impacts of the Fukushima disaster. A treaty between WHO and IAEA from 1959 forces the World Health Organization to assign their competences on health impacts of radiation to them. But the objective of the IAEA actually is the promotion of nuclear power. There is a conflict of interests between the protection of people against nuclear power and fostering this technology. "The WHO should declare themselves in favor of the evacuation of the women, infants and pregnant women of the affected regions as they are particularly radiation sensitive", IPPNW physician Dr. Angelika Claußen explained.[45]

While experts yet discuss the impacts of the nuclear catastrophe, the German atomic lobbying organization "Deutsches Atomforum" insisted a similar accident could not happen at German nuclear power plants as their safety systems would be prepared to deal with those situations (the same the Japanese nuclear industry said about their reactors by now)[46]. Meanwhile Japan’s Nuclear and Industrial Safety Agency (NISA) said March 12 that the explosion at the Fukushima Daiichi No. 1 nuclear plant could only have been caused by a meltdown of the reactor core[47]. Under public pressure and on view of several elections during the next weeks the German government decided the temporary shut-down of seven German NPPs for some 3 months[48].

Criticism arose about German companies having been involved to the financing of the blasted reastors: up to 60 Million Euros had been invested by German banks to Fukushima[49]

As a result of the massive protests in Germany the German government had to announce a moratorium of three months of interruption[50] of operation for the seven oldest and most dangerous nuclear reactors: Neckarwestheim-1, Philippsburg-1, Isar-1, Biblis-A, Unterweser, Biblis-B, Krümmel and Brunsbüttel have been shut-down now[51]. Also some federal states[52] are considering to force the atomic industry to shut down some of their reactors - for instance the Neckarwestheim-1 NPP will be closed permantly[50]. Basically all German NPP will be subject of safety checks during the next months, the government decided[53]. In contrast to this decision Chancellor had stated in direct reaction to the catastrophe in Japan that the German reactors would be safe and that there wouldn't be any reason for concerns.

Meanwhile the German Minister of Ecology, who is also in charge of nuclear safety in Germany, announced to develop new regulations for a fast extension of renewable energy supplies in Germany[54].

Since March 12, 2011 vigiles, rallies, blockades[55] of nuclear facilities and other actions[56][57] are happening around the world to demand an immediate global shut-down of all atomic facilities. In Germany two days after the first explosions about 110,000 people protested on March 14 in more than 450 vigiles[58][59], on March 21 about 140,000 demonstrated in some 750 vigiles[60][61]. On Saturday March 19 some 10,000 protested in Hannover against atomic power[62] and 2,000 people demonstrated their opposition to nuclear power in Hamburg. Mass demonstrations have been called out for March 26 in Berlin, Cologne, Hamburg and Munich. A blockade of nuclear power plants was announced by X-tausend mal quer" for June - when the moratorium of the seven oldest reactors in Germany (they have been tuned off for three months after Fukushima) will end. People are already publicly announcing their participation in theses sit-in blockades or their solidarity with the action.


http://www.bfs.de/de/ion/animation.gif
Detection of Iodine-131 and Xenon-133 from Fukushima up to March 22





































The Nuclear information and resource service provides an updated factsheet about the catastrophe of Fukushima 1.





Footnotes

  1. 1.0 1.1 http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Fukushima_I_Nuclear_Power_Plant&oldid=418460202 as at March 12, 2011
  2. 2.0 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5 http://www.contratom.de/2.0/index.php?mod=blog&artikel=1808 as at March 12, 2011
  3. http://www.greenaction-japan.org/modules/wordpress1/index.php?p=2 as at March 12, 2011
  4. http://english.kyodonews.jp/news/2011/03/77606.html as at March 14, 2011
  5. http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vMCa-Zo_ZEU&sns=fb as at March 14, 2011
  6. http://www.iaea.org/newscenter/news/tsunamiupdate01.html as at March 14, 2011
  7. 7.0 7.1 7.2 7.3 http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-12307698 as at March 12, 2011
  8. 8.0 8.1 8.2 8.3 http://english.kyodonews.jp/news/2011/03/78063.html as at March 15, 2011
  9. 9.0 9.1 9.2 9.3 9.4 9.5 9.6 9.7 http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=2011_T%C5%8Dhoku_earthquake_and_tsunami&oldid=420466410 as at March 24, 2011
  10. 10.0 10.1 http://www.greenpeace.de/themen/atomkraft/nachrichten/artikel/erdbeben_in_japan_regierung_ruft_atomaren_notstand_aus/ as at March 12, 2011
  11. http://www.tagesschau.de/ausland/fukushima126.html as at March 12, 2011
  12. http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-asia-pacific-12720219 as at March 12, 2011
  13. 13.00 13.01 13.02 13.03 13.04 13.05 13.06 13.07 13.08 13.09 13.10 13.11 13.12 13.13 13.14 13.15 13.16 13.17 13.18 13.19 13.20 13.21 13.22 13.23 13.24 13.25 13.26 13.27 13.28 http://www.nirs.org/reactorwatch/accidents/Fukushimafactsheet.pdf as at March 13, 2011
  14. 14.0 14.1 14.2 14.3 http://www.latimes.com/news/la-fgw-japan-nuclear-plant-20110326,0,7076764.story as at March 25, 2011
  15. http://www.ustream.tv/channel/nhk-world-tv as at March 25, 2011
  16. http://www.dw-world.de/dw/function/0,,83389_cid_14917321,00.html?maca=de-aa-news-855-rdf as at March 16, 2011
  17. https://www.facebook.com/notes/anti-nuclear/disaster-fukushima-the-first-independent-measurements-of-radioactivity-are-alarm/10150122538293442 as at March 14, 2011
  18. http://www.chicagotribune.com/news/daywatch/sns-ap-as-japan-earthquake,0,6520725.story as at March 25, 2011
  19. http://www.reuters.com/article/2011/03/12/us-japan-quake-nuclear-cooling-idUSTRE72B3GI20110312 as at March 12, 2011
  20. http://english.kyodonews.jp/news/2011/03/77319.html as at March 13, 2011
  21. http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-asia-pacific-12724953 as at Sunday March 13, 2011
  22. http://english.kyodonews.jp/news/2011/03/77606.html as at March 14, 2011
  23. http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vMCa-Zo_ZEU&sns=fb as at March 14, 2011
  24. 24.0 24.1 24.2 24.3 24.4 24.5 24.6 http://www.spiegel.de/panorama/0,1518,751682,00.html as at March 18, 2011
  25. http://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2011/03/16/world/asia/reactors-status.html?ref=asia as at March 17, 2011
  26. 26.0 26.1 26.2 26.3 http://www.nytimes.com/2011/03/17/world/asia/17nuclear.html?_r=1 as at March 17, 2011
  27. http://www.world-nuclear-news.org/RS_Battle_to_stabilise_earthquake_reactors_1203111.html as at March 12, 2011
  28. http://mainichi.jp/select/weathernews/20110311/news/20110313k0000e040033000c.html as at March 13, 2011 via http://www.greenaction-japan.org/modules/wordpress1/index.php?p=2 as at March 13, 2011
  29. http://www.chicagotribune.com/news/nationworld/la-fgw-japan-quake-radiation-20110325,0,7432140.story as at March 25, 2011
  30. http://www.platts.com/RSSFeedDetailedNews/RSSFeed/ElectricPower/6916290 as at March 19, 2011
  31. 31.0 31.1 http://www.nytimes.com/2011/03/20/world/asia/20japan.html?_r=1 as at March 19, 2011
  32. 32.0 32.1 http://www.chicagotribune.com/news/nationworld/la-fgw-japan-quake-radiation-20110325,0,7432140.story as at March 25, 2011
  33. https://www.facebook.com/video/video.php?v=144759748925071&comments as at March 23, 2011
  34. http://www.gfstrahlenschutz.de/pm110323.htm as at March 23, 2011
  35. http://jodblockade.de/ as at March 24, 2011
  36. Call to the "Brückenapotheke Roßwein" on March 24, 2011
  37. Search request e.g. http://www.google.de/search?q=Kaliumjodid+Lannacher+kaufen&ie=utf-8&oe=utf-8&aq=t&rls=org.mozilla:de:official&client=firefox-a#q=Kaliumiodid+Lannacher+kaufen&hl=de&client=firefox-a&hs=C98&rls=org.mozilla:de:official&prmd=ivns&ei=lXSLTae3AoTssgbgguicCg&start=10&sa=N&fp=2233dc865a328f9f as at March 24, 2011
  38. http://www.lannacher.at/zusatzinfo/1300353565.pdf as at March 24, 2011
  39. http://www.ustream.tv/channel/nhk-world-tv as at March 24, 2011
  40. http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Decay_heat&printable=yes as at March 24, 2011
  41. http://de.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Nachzerfallsw%C3%A4rme&oldid=86711038 as at March 24, 2011
  42. http://www.nuclearpowerdaily.com/reports/Days_before_quake_plant_operator_admitted_oversight_999.html as at March 21, 2011
  43. http://www.bbc.co.uk/blogs/adamcurtis/2011/03/a_is_for_atom.html as at March 23, 2011
  44. http://www.anti-atom-piraten.de/2011/03/seit-1971-versagen-des-notkuhlsystems-beim-reaktortyp-fukushima-als-designfehler-bekannt/ as at March 23, 2011
  45. http://www.ippnw.de/startseite/artikel/0f63d4ab40/who-soll-objektiv-ueber-gesundheitli.html as at March 24, 2011
  46. http://www.kernenergie.de/kernenergie/documentpool/Presse/PM-2011-04_Ereignisse_Japan.pdf as at March 12, 2011
  47. http://www.stratfor.com/analysis/20110312-japanese-government-confirms-meltdown as at March 13, 2011
  48. http://www.contratom.de/2.0/index.php?mod=blog&artikel=1820 as at March 17, 2011
  49. http://www.spiegel.de/wirtschaft/unternehmen/0,1518,751490,00.html as at March 21, 2011
  50. 50.0 50.1 http://www.spiegel.de/politik/deutschland/0,1518,751078,00.html as at March 21, 2011
  51. http://www.contratom.de/2011/03/17/sofort-abschalten/ as at March 21, 2011
  52. http://www.presseportal.de/pm/6329/2012846/gruner_jahr_stern as at March 24, 2011
  53. http://www.spiegel.de/video/video-1115491.html as at March 21
  54. http://www.sueddeutsche.de/wirtschaft/energiewende-plaene-der-regierung-neue-netze-mehr-windkraft-und-alles-ganz-schnell-1.1074809 as at March 21, 2011
  55. http://www.contratom.de/2.0/index.php?mod=blog&baum2=1&baum3=1&artikel=1827 as at March 21, 2011
  56. http://www.contratom.de/2011/03/18/abschalten-abseilaktion-in-magdeburg/#more-242 as at March 21, 2011
  57. http://www.greenpeace.de/themen/atomkraft/nachrichten/artikel/projektionen_an_acht_akws_qdas_luegen_geht_weiterq/ as at March 21, 2011
  58. http://www.ausgestrahlt.de/mitmachen/fukushima as at March 21, 2011
  59. http://www.contratom.de/2.0/index.php?mod=blog&baum2=1&baum3=1&artikel=1825 as at March 17, 2011
  60. http://www.ausgestrahlt.de/mitmachen/fukushima as at March 21, 2011
  61. http://www.contratom.de/2011/03/21/141-612-menschen-demonstrieren-in-726-orten-fur-die-stilllegung-der-akw/ as at March 22, 2011
  62. http://www.contratom.de/2011/03/19/10-000-demonstrieren-in-hannover-gegen-atomkraft/#more-336 as at March 21, 2011